Strategic HUman Resource Management Essay Example for Free

Strategic HUman Resource Management Essay Defining SHRM The purpose of this portion of the paper is to provide an explanation into strategic human resource management (SHRM). This information will look at the ways that some scholars have defined the concept of SHRM, and the role that it serves within an organization. In addition, the first part of this research will examine how a human resource department can actually be called strategic in nature. This information will also be examined in relation to an actual organization. Various models of SHRM will be discussed, and the idea of how they compare to the organization in question will be presented. After reading this portion of the paper, it should become clear that SHRM is much more than simply hiring people. It is also much more than operating within a bubble. It is about actually helping the overall strategy and vision of a company. The first thing that needs to be done is to provide an actual definition and analysis to what it actually means to be SHRM. In order to define this concept, it is first important to actually explain what is meant by human resources in general. Appleby Mavin (2000) explain that Human resources are the efforts, skills, and capabilities that people contribute to an employing organization which enable it to continue in existence. Although difficult to define, SHRM is generally perceived as a distinctive approach to managing people which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic development of a highly committed and capable workforce (s555). The definition that is provided here explains that human resources is really about the skills that the people of an organization bring together in order to keep it alive. In addition, the authors explain that moving into the realm of SHRM is about managing the human capital of an organization in such a way as to achieve some type of competitive edge. Having not only a committed workforce, but also having a workforce that is highly trained for the job that must be performed achieves the competitive edge. Moving in this direction is where human resources becomes SHRM. Van Donk (2001) takes this idea one step further by explaining where in the planning process of a company the human resource management role must fit in  order to make it strategic in nature. He also explains how this role has evolved in the past twenty years or so: From the 80s onward there have been pleas for integrating human resource management and corporate strategy. A number of authors have been working on approaches to the achievement of what is called Strategic Human Resource Management. These approaches place the human resource management policy formulation at the strategic level. In these approaches to Strategic Human Resource Management it is claimed that: (1) human resource problems are problems solved by linking HRM and strategy formulation at an early stage; and (2) problems with strategy implementation are solved by early adjustment of the HRM to these strategies (299). In the end, what Van Donk adds to the definition of SHRM is that human resources cannot be called in at the last minute to fix a hiring problem. Instead, human resources must be involved from the very early planning stages in terms of the type of human resources that are needed. This early involvement allows human resources to understand exactly what is needed. It also allows human resources to be able to adjust so that the decisions that are made about the people that are needed can be adjusted immediately to fit new or changed strategies for the company. Finally, Mueller (1996) adds one additional piece to the information that helps us to formulate an overall definition for SHRM. He explains that: I propose to take the following as the defining features of the ‘orthodox notion of SHRM. According to this notion a strategic utilization of human resources means that: 1. Management is active, not reactive 2. There is high integration between policies 3. An orchestrational role is played by senior management 4. and there is articulation of policies by senior management (759). The information that is provided by these three scholars can help us to create on integrated definition of what is truly meant by SHRM. This concept really means that the human resource department and its leaders are not simply thought of as the people who are given the task of hiring employees. Instead, they are an important part of the strategy formation of a company. These people are a part of the process from the very beginning, and they are  given the authority by company management to be taken serious to provide ideas about the strategic planning of the company in terms of the role that employees will play, and the skills that need to help achieve those goals. The information that is provided should also make it clear that SHRM is more than just about the role that the human resource department of a company plays in the strategic vision of an organization. It is the role of senior management that helps to actually make SHRM work. Senior management must actually give the authority and respect that is needed to make the human resource department a vital part of any strategic vision. This must be more than simply saying that human resources are important for the company. Instead, it means that senior management must act upon it, and they must take an active approach to human resource needs to fulfill those strategic plans. They must communicate with human resource managers, and they must also listen to human resource managers. In the end, it could be easily explained that strategic human resource management is about adjusting the role of human resources. Rather than having a department that reacts to the needs of the company, SHRM is about ha ving a department that is on top of the planning that goes into deciding the human resource needs of the company (McMahan, Bell Virick 1998: 196). Evaluating SHRM in an organization In order to evaluate the extent to which human resource management in an organization can be termed strategic, we must first understand some of the basic models that apply to the organization that is being discussed. We must also have an organization that we can discuss in the first place. In order to choose an organization, it is easier, as an example, if an organization is chosen that is widely known by a lot of people. For this, we are going to turn to a description of large accounting firms and the role of human resources in their firms provided by Boxall Purcell (2000). To Illustrate what we mean about strategic choices in HRM, take the case of a management consulting firm that aims to join the elite cluster of firms that are transnational, if not ‘global’ in their reach (firms such as McKinsey, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Anderson Consulting). There is no doubt that such a firm must have highly selective recruitment and strong development of staff to ensure it can consistently offer clients high-quality service on  complex business problems. In this elite strategic group, a synergistic blend of certain human resource policies—such as proactive recruitement channels, high entry standards, high pay, employee ownership and extensive professional education—are critical prerequisites to a firm’s credibility in its sectoral labour market. On the other hand, it is unlikely that there is much handing on the firm’s choice of job evaluation systems. If any one o fa range of such systems supports its remuneration goals in recruiting and retaining highly qualified consultants, or doesn’t perversely undermine them, then the choice among different systems is not critical. Similarly, the contracting out of payroll or benefits administration in such a firm is not a strategic dimension of its HRM. It is not difficult to meet the requirements of employment contracts in these areas and elite firms are not differentiated from lesser firms on this basis. What is critical, however, is that they firm’s leaders put together and aply the system of broad-based HR policies that will help the firm to join the elite group of professional firms in its sector—although it would be unwise to think that this will happen quickly or be achieved solely through HR strategy (184-185). From the example that is given by major accounting firms, it is easy to see what makes human resource management strategic, and what does not. It all comes down to the notion of the decisions that are made in terms of moving the company forward in its goals and visions. On the other hand, decisions that really do not affect the visions of the company, such as choosing one piece of software over another to administer payroll, is not something that makes a human resource department strategic. With all of this in mind, the company that is going to be used as an example to determine how it has implemented, or needs to implement, SHRM is a small software company with which is I am familiar and have some working knowledge of the internal structure that sells communication software to physicians known as Televox Software. The software from the company helps companies immediately send recorded messages to customers to remind them of appointments or past-due bills. The software even allows customers to pay bills right over the internet without any work on the part of the company that wants the feature for its customers. In order to determine how the company’s human resources are already strategic in some ways, it is important to look at some of the models that explain SHRM. One of these models is known as the open systems theory. The open systems theory states that a company receives inputs from the environment, such as from customers and even other companies, and then uses that information to change how it operates. Wright Snell (2001) explain the concepts behind the open systems theory: It emphasizes two important characteristics of organizations: the system character, so that the movement in any part of the organization leads to movement in other parts, and the openness to environmental inputs (208). In terms of human resource management at Televox, the company is very much strategic in this regard. The company is constantly looking for feedback from customers. This feedback, unlike at some companies, is taken very seriously. When a customer complains about the way in which an employee has done his or her job, this information is analyzed to determine where the problem took place. If the problem lies with the employee’s training or motivation, human resources takes actions immediately to alleviate or correct the problem. A second theory that easily applies to Televox is the universalistic perspective. Colbert (2004) explains that Under a universalistic approach, strategic HR practices are those that are found to consistently lead to higher organizational performances, independent of an organization’s strategy. Examples are such practices as formal training systems, profit sharing, voice mechanisms, and job definition. One might argue that these are not strategic in the sense used elsewhere in the SHRM literature (i.e., contingent on strategy or explicitly aligned with specific strategy) and may simply be terms prudent in the sense that they have been shown to consistently enable a given firm to perform better than it might otherwise (344). Regardless of what some might think about the universalistic perspective, the ideas behind the theory can led a company to SHRM. In the case of the  company in question, Televox, the organization is very definite about defining job duties and providing formal training to employees. However, the company does lack in profit sharing as it is not a publicly traded company. In addition, the company also lacks in actually listening to its employees and giving them a voice in real decision-making. This shows that the company has moved from simple human resource management to strategic human resource management in some ways. However, it also shows that the company is not yet fully involved in the SHRM process. In terms of the information about Televox at this point in the analysis, it can only be deemed to have SHRM management in the way in which it takes information from the environment that it operates. When customers and others have issues with the services and support that are provided by employees, the company takes this information very seriously. The result is that training or even firings take place. In addition, when people are hired into the company, they learn very quickly that excellent customer service and attention to customer needs are the key to the vision and strategy of the company. This means that these ideas and objectives are going to be key to the way in which employees operate. At the same time, the company is very much about defining job duties and explaining the place that everyone holds in the company in relation to the vision of the company. However, the company, simply based on the information that we have discussed so far, lacks SHRM in other ways. For example, the company does not give employees a voice in helping to set strategy and goals for the company. In addition, communication between manager and employees is often very much one-sided. The company also does not give incentives that might keep the specialized and trained employees that they need to work in a skilled environment like a software company. In the next section of this analysis, information and research regarding HR Departments will be discussed. Once this literature review has been completed, we will return to Televox to determine what types of other improvements can be made to the company to move it closer to truly operating with the mindset of SHRM. This move closer to true SHRM can also be seen as  providing ways that Televox can actually move closer, as was explained earlier in this paper, to be an elite company in the sector in which it operates. Literature Review The purpose of this section of the report is to look at research and information regarding HR departments. The background information is being provided in the context of determining the problems and opportunities that exist for HR departments to transition from simply doing human resource management to handling strategic human resource management for the companies in which they operate. What should be taken from the background information that will be presented is that the difficulty that still exists in making that transition in one of understanding of SHRM and old ways of thinking about human resources in general. Before any background information can be provided, it is important to understand some of the key questions of SHRM so that we will know what to look for in the research that is available on this topic. Colbert (2004) explains that Research on the contribution of human resources (people) and HRM (practices) to organizational effectiveness has addressed a wide array of questions: what is the effect of HR practices on the development of the firm’s human resources? Which HR practices lead to greater organizational performance? To what degree does that depend on firm strategy? How does a firm ensure that its HR Practices ‘fit’ with its strategy? How does it ensure that its individual HR practices fit with one another, or does fit even matter in HR practices? Must the attributes of a firm’s base of human resources always align with an a priori strategy, or can its stock of skills, knowledge, and interactions drive strategic direction? (342). One of the ideas that exists about human resource management is that it was divided into its various parts in the past. This division of what constitutes human resource management is known as a subfunctional view. This view held that human resource departments actually had various separate roles, such as selecting employees, training employees, and even appraising employees. It has been argued, however, that the view that human resource departments have small functions that must come together for the sake of the  company has actually created problems for companies and HR departments. One of these problems is that the subfunctional view created problems for HR managers to try to understand how all of these functions actually came together. It was often the case that HR managers did not see them coming together. Instead, they were simply seen as separate tasks, such as selecting qualified candidates and then later on evaluating their performance. The end result has been that HR departments have not seen that all of the functions they perform actually do work together to accomplish the overall vision for the company (Wright Snell 2001: 206). In fact, Van Donk Esser (2001: 302) note that human resource managers often view the idea of managing human resources as lying within certain areas of concern and policy for the company and its employees. These areas concern the influence that a company may give to employees and even employee unions, the flow of human resources to various parts of the company, the rewards and benefits that are given to the employees, and the actual design of the work and the jobs that are performed. It is already clear that viewing each of these areas separately can certainly cause problems for human resource departments. If an HR manager thinks of hiring employees as a separate task from actually training employees or thinking about the jobs they will perform, confusion can easily be created when all of this is brought together when new employees are assigned to a department and told to get to work. There is clearly no harmony in the way that some HR managers think about the assets, that being the human assets, that they are supposed to be managing. Lundy (1994) also explains, as far as human resources goes in the United States, that their was an old system in place of managing employees. This was a system where those who oversaw personnel decisions really lacked any power or decision-making skills at all. However, she explains that this is changing in the United States, and that the role that human resource officials play within the companies for which they work is evolving. She explains this evolution: There are other issues worth consideration. It would seem that, from a US perspective, a good case can be made for  concluding that personnel management in its traditional form has been evolving to a process identified as human resource management (HRM). In particular, the Harvard model and writings demonstrate the nature of the evolution. It incorporates: a strategic orientation; standard personnel management practices, e.g. selection, appraisal; a philosophy and new practices geared towards employee motivation. It has a strong managerial perspective and, in many ways, the new practices have been managements pragmatic response to its changing environmental context. It is also worth noting that historical analysis has suggested five different HR management systems linked to environmental conditions. This gives strong emphasis to the contingency-based properties of the current commitment system. While the likely endurance of the commitment system is unknown it is important to take account of the probable strength of the educational and social changes within human resources which have influenced the development of the system. The historical analysis has also pointed up that the different HRM systems denote a shift in the balance of influence between employer and employed. There is a connection here with the literature on the changing face of American industrial relations and the phenomenon of the non-union firm. Certainly the analysis highlights certain extremes in behaviour and perspective, e. g. mutuality/adversarialism, control/commitment, specialization/flexibility, standardization/innovation, alienation/identification and so on (713). The reason for this evolution and changing dynamic between companies and human resource departments, as well as between human resource departments and employees may lie in the outcome of being more focused on employees and the planning of human resources. In fact, Appleby Mavin (2000) conducted research to determine what happens when there is an integration of human resource roles and ideas. The research looked at over 800 companies in the manufacturing industry in England. The authors used a self-assessment questionnaire that would report how well each company was achieving a world-class levels of performance, and what was helping to lead to that level of performance. The authors report that actually bringing together all of the roles and functions of HR departments was related to an organization actually attaining world-class level. The authors of the study  explain: The results show a positive association between the integration of HR strategy and the world-class status of orga nizations. Further, those organizations using an integrated HR strategy show better practice and performance with regard to: quality management, managing and developing their people, and their sustainability and innovation (s560). This study is not the only study to find that actually integrating the roles and duties of human resource departments actually lead to better overall results for the companies in question. Rodwell Teo (2004) conducted a study of for-profit and non-profit companies in Australia. The study consisted of 61 companies in Australia that operated in the medical industry. Questionnaires were given to company leaders asking about human resource practices. The results of the study found that regardless of whether a company was for-profit or non-profit, human resource practices that actually integrated people and their functions resulted in better performance for the company. As the authors of the study state: The evidence suggests that as the health sector experiences more global reform in terms of policy and managerial changes (EOHCS 2001) Australian HS firms emphasize the buying of skills, experience and knowledge through selective staffing and other human capital-enhancing practices. Researchers such as Snell and Dean (1992) conclude that the adoption of these strategic initiatives are related to the adoption of strategic HRM and those practices that focus on the creation of human capital required for mastering the new managerial and medical systems and techniques. In this instance, HRM has been used to ensure that human resources are selected to add value to the firms’ quest for efficiency, effectiveness and economy in the Australian health sector (325). Now, at this point, some might argue that about the ability to take research from one area of the world, or even in one sector, and generalize the findings to all companies and how human resources should be managed across the spectrum. The fact of the matter is that this is an important area of discussion. The research that has been presented clearly shows that the notion of human resource management in companies is changing because it is  good for the companies. In organizations where human resource departments are given the authority to integrate their tasks and to worry about the resources that they are supposed to be in charge of, the result has been companies with better levels of overall performance. Still, the argument remains as to the ability to generalize these findings. However, in light of the information that is available, it clearly seems that more research and even more practice is warranted. As Wright, Snell Dyer state quite clearly: The conference at Cornell was s uccessful in bringing together leading HR academics from around the globe to enhance the emerging international dialogue on SHRM theory and research. The resulting papers suggest general agreement on one point: that differences in institutional environments, and perhaps cultures, serve as boundary conditions with respect to the generalizability of our models and empirical results. Clearly, however, there is less agreement about the nature of these boundary conditions and the direction and magnitude of their effects, or on the stakeholder vs stockholder controversy. We hope that SHRM theorists and researchers in all corners of the globe will see this situation as a challenge. The papers in this volume represent a promising start. The task now is to build on this work by incorporating a fuller range of boundary conditions in our research, explicitly wrestling with the global universality vs local adaptability issue and experimenting with a wider range of outcomes in our models and studies preferably doing so through networks of international collaborations and consortiums. Ultimately, we must make absolutely certain that our field continues to hold its own in the ubiquitous drive to globalize (879). Based on the studies and opinions from scholars in the field of human resource management, it is clear that HR departments must change their focus on how they view people, and how those people fit into the organization. This change must come at the management level, and must actually see human resource departments as part of the management level, rather than as simply another part of the organization that can be ignored. Kazmi Ahmad (2001) explain the types of questions and focus that comes when human resources are seen as being part of the management level in a company. For example, in the personnel selection/placement area, operational-level activities include the  annual staffing and recruitment plans. The managerial-level is more concerned with staff planning for the intermediate-range future. A question posed at the managerial-level is, for instance, if the company is about to set up two plants in different parts of the country, what kind of people will be needed and how will they be found? Strategic-level activities look on the long-term future. Here a question such as this could be posed: what kind of people will be needed to manage and run the organization in the future? The implications of the long-run position are then retraced to guide current selection, placement, and training practices. If, say, a major oil company formulates a strategic plan for major diversification by the year 2005, a relevant question would be: what kind of people should it be recruiting now so that it will have employees capable of running the diversified company five years and beyond? (135). Of course, with all of this discussion about moving human resources to the role of being a strategic part of a company, Schuler (1992: 25) explains that human resource departments need to be part of the team that not only makes strategic decisions, but also helps to set some of the tone for the company. For example, he explains that human resources can take on three roles: a leadership role, a managerial role, and an operational role. In the leadership role, HR helps to steer the direction of the employees of the company. This can include attitudes and culture that exist in the way that employees approach their jobs and the people they serve. In the managerial role, HR acts to give employees the training and direction they need. HR also gives feedback to the work that is being done, and ways that employees can improve. HR can also help to direct how people work together to get tasks done efficiently. Finally, in the operational role, HR helps to set the function of certain roles. This can be as simple as telling employees that they must smile and greet customers by name. However, in the light of various functions, HR departments must see themselves as part of the company that actually helps to build profits and results. They can no longer see themselves as simply working for a company. They must see themselves as actually moving a company forward, and having to produce results to show that work and effort. Rogers Wright (1998) explain this idea. Universal application of macro HRM models of analysis  with dynamic constructs for performance may prove more achievable and useful than the search for a single universal linkage of micro HR to a particular measure of organizational performance. Just as happened with the field of economics, human resources management is developing a clearly distinguishable macro side. The HR field must face the questions of micro-macro linkage, bias in aggregation, and plausible mechanisms of action to connect individual human activity in the form of HRM with organizational performance. How these questions are answered will in large part determine the direction and utility of the filed in the next decade. A case has been made for expanding the concept of performance to enable establishment of a general construct for organizational performance through the adoption of a performance information market concept. The PIM concept needs to be equipped with variables and the model’s mechanism of interaction verified by empirical investigations (328). Problems and Opportunities of Becoming Strategic Based on the information that was provided in the literature review, it should become clearer that a transition from simple human resource management to strategic human resource management is not going to be something that is going to result in just opportunities for human resource departments. Instead, there are also going to be problems and areas of concern along the way. All of these areas must be addressed and dealt with my HR departments if they are going to be part of the strategic process in companies in the future. First, with the transition to strategic human resources, HR departments are going to be held accountable for the work that they perform. This means that they cannot simply sit on the sidelines and expect to reap the benefits of being treated like part of the management team without gaining some of the pressures and responsibilities that come with actually being part of the management. This is going to result in HR managers and departments having to actually justify their existence. They are going to have their own goals and objectives that will have to be met. Even more, they are going to have to answer to the senior management of the companies for which they work, as well as the investors of the companies, when the decisions they have  undertaken to obtain qualified employees or to hold on to employees do not go as planned. They are also going to be expected to communicate problems and concerns more openly, rather than lurking in the shadows waiting to be noticed by those in power . Another area of opportunity or problem, depending on where you stand, is going to be that human resource personnel can no longer be people who sit and shuffle paper. It will not matter if we are talking about the HR manager or the associate sitting in the office. The fact of the matter, everyone who works in the HR department is going to have to be trained not only in how to interview and hire employees, but also how to develop plans to deal with strategies that will move a company forward. In fact, it does not seem far-fetched at all to assume that more time will be spent by those in HR departments developing strategies and analyzing what is working and what is not as it relates to employee operation and performance. Of course, with all of these areas of concern will come many opportunities and benefits for HR departments to work toward SHRM. First, this is the chance for those who work in HR departments to truly be taken seriously as leaders and managers. They can come out of the shadows and stop being seen as employees who are removed from the actual work that is being done in the company. Instead, they can be viewed by employees as being relevant to the operations of the company. These individuals can also be seen as having the abilities to truly be effective leaders. At the same time, all of this promises success for more than just the companies or those who work in HR departments. The change from human resource management to SHRM will mean that employees will be recruited with the idea that they are truly valuable, and how they are treated is important for the future of individual companies. Of course, for employees and potential employees, this will also spell added responsibility. Employees will have to show that they have the skills and qualifications that are necessary for the specific job or function they will play within the company. However, they will also need to show that they can learn and expand as the strategic plans and goals for the company change. Just as HR  managers will have to adjust, the move to SHRM means employees will be affected, and they will have to change as well. However, if all of this comes together, the end result should be a great improvement in how companies operate. The research shows that companies that are involved with SHRM perform at a higher level. The research also shows that these companies are in a better place to provide world-class service. Application of SHRM to an Organization Now that we have analyzed the research leading to SHRM, it is time to turn back to Televox Software and the ways in which it can improve upon SHRM in its operation. First and foremost, the research shows that HR departments must communicate clearly and accurately the expectations to new employees. At Televox, new employees are not always give the full range of their duties until they have already been on the job. It is true that they are given the specific duties of the job for which they are hired. However, they are often not told that they will be cross-trained to handle duties of other employees with those employees are not available to help customers or are on vacation. This sometimes leads to employees who are not happy with the job once they are hired. A move to SHRM at the company will mean that the full range of expectations and duties will be provided to employees from the beginning. In fact, a move to SHRM would mean that he HR department would seek out employees who enjoy the challenge of actually having to take on duties that are outside of their specific roles within the company. Instead of hiring people who are only skilled at one job, and only want to be skilled in that job, those who make hiring decisions would work to gain employees that want to be well-versed in many duties within the organization. At the same time, a move to SHRM would make the company realize that having skilled employees who are motivated by the strategic plans for the company have to be compensated and treated with respect and dignity. Currently, the company shows its respect for employees in basic ways, such as to give away free lunch and other items. However, when it comes to listening to employee concerns about working conditions, the company is not always responsive,  either openly or in future moves of the company. The organization needs to show more openly that it takes employee concerns seriously, and that it realizes the employees are trained and skilled enough to know when to provide feedback about working conditions that should be taken seriously by management (McMahan, Bell Virick 1998: 198). Of course, it must be understood that moving closer to full SHRM is not going to be something that can occur in a short amount of time. The reason for this is that the company have dozens of employees that have been with the company for years. Adjusting to a way of doing business that focuses more on employee skills may be something that is not taken seriously by existing employees. The result is going to be some who are on board with the SHRM measures, and some who are not. All employees will have to be brought up to speed with the new plans, or some employees will have to be informed of the consequences of not getting on board with the new strategic plans for the company. In the end, the research and actual application of SHRM shows that moving in this direction is good for companies. However, the research should leave no doubt that the transition is difficult, and it does require changing well-established attitudes and roles. These are attitudes that have existed for decades, and they are not going to change quickly. On the other hand, as with many things that occur in the world of business, as companies realize that advantages that come with SHRM, more will move in that direction and require acceptance of the policies that come with it (Wright McMahan 1992: 316; Siddique 2004: 219). References Appleby, A. Mavin, S. 2000. ‘Innovation not imitation: Human Resource Strategy and the Impact on World-Class Status,’ Total Quality Management, vol. 11, no. 5, s554-s561. Boxall, P. Purcell, J. 2000. ‘Strategic Human Resource Management: Where Have we Come From and Where Should we be Going?’ International Journal of Management Reviews, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 183-203. Colbert, B. A. 2004. ‘The Complex Resource-Based View: Implications for Theory and Practice in Strategic Human Resource Management,’ Academy of  Management Review, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 341-356. Kazmi, A. Ahmad, F. 2001. ‘Differening Approaches to Strategic Human Resource Management,’ Journal of Management Research, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 133-140. Lundy, O. 1994. ‘From Personnel Management to Strategic Human Resource Management,’ International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 687-720. McMahan, G. C., Bell, M. P. Virick, M. 1998. ‘S trategic Human Resource Management: Employee Involvement, Diversity, and International Issues,’ Human Resource Management Review, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 193-214. Mueller, F. 1996. ‘Human Resources as Strategic Assets: An Evolutionary Resource-Based Theory,’ Journal of Management Studies, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 757-785. Rodwell, J. J. Teo, S. T. T. 2004. ‘Strategic HRM in For-Profit and Non-Profit Organizations in a Knowledge-Intensive Industry,’ Public Management Review, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 311-331. Rogers, E. W. Wright, P. M. 1998. ‘Measuring Organizational Performance in Strategic Human Resource Management; Problems, Prospects, and Performance Information Markets,’ Human Resource Management Review, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 311-331. Schuler, R. S. 1992. ‘Strategic Human Resource Management: Linking the People with the Strategic Needs of the Business,’ Organizational Dynamics, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 18-32. Siddique, C. M. 2004. ‘Job Analysis: A Strategic Human Resource Management Practice,’ International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 219-244. Van Donk, D. Esser, A. 1992. ‘Strategic Human Resource Management: A Role of the Human Resource Manager in the Process of Strategy Formation,’ Human Resource Management Review, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 299-315. Wright, P. M. McMahan, G. C. 2001. ‘Theoretical Perspectives for Strategic Human Resource Management,’ Journal of Management, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 295-320. Wright, P. M. Snell, S. A. 1991. ‘Toward an Integrative View of Strategic Human Resource Management,’ Human Resource Management Review, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 203-225. Wright, P. M., Snell, S. A. Dyer, L. 2005. ‘New Models of Strategic HRM in a Global Context,’ International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 875-881.

Study of the New York Accent

Study of the New York Accent Amanda Bjork Why Do They â€Å"Tawk† Like Dat? A Brief Study of the New York City Accent New York can easily be called the biggest collection of villages in the world, a melting pot of nearly all the world’s cultures in one small place. For years, the New York accent—from famous faces such as Rosie Perez to Spike Lee, Fran Drescher to Archie Bunker—has been studied, extolled and derided (Bortolot, 2011). New Yorkers keep their accents, wherever they originally may have come from, and the resulting sound(s) are what has come to constitute the globally recognized accent found in the unique â€Å"New York City English†. There are many different but recognizable characteristics and sounds that make up the famous accent. Many of which may have surprising origins, and many whose origins may never be known. Contrary to popular belief, in New York City, the origin and classification of accent has more ties to ethnicity than to a speaker’s specific geographic region (such as borough). Over the years and through the evolution of the New York acce nt, there have been many varying reactions and responses to it, from wearing it proudly to attempts at â€Å"un-learning† it altogether. The New York City accent is a variation of the English language that is spoken by many people in New York City and much of the surrounding metropolitan area. Pioneer American sociolinguist William Labov has done the most work on the specific subject and has described it as the most recognizable variety of sounds in American English. Overall, the New York accent is made up of all of the elements within the speaker and the city, and it has defined the language of New Yorkers for generations. First of all, to understand where the accent originated, we must be familiar with some of the characteristic sounds that may have gone previously unknown or unidentified as a New York characteristic. Based on years of research, American sociolinguist William Labov has concluded that the New York accent originated as a derivative of a British accent, specifically speakers from South London. But the many aspects of the accent have roots all over Europe. The New York accent is a non-rhotic accent, unlike most American accents, which simply means that the â€Å"r† is not usually pronounced, just as in most British varieties of English. There are sounds that we all recognize as part of the New York accent. Words and phrases such as â€Å"schtreet† (street), â€Å"yaw mutha† (your mother), and â€Å"waduh† (water) (Quinlan, 2013). The unique way that New Yorkers draw out their vowels is another important feature. New Yorkers are also guilty of the intrusive â₠¬Å"r†. When the â€Å"r’s† are dropped, New Yorkers will frequently put them back in where they don’t belong. For example, â€Å"Linda† may become â€Å"Linder† and there are phrases like â€Å"come heah and bring me a soder†. Another distinct, and possibly the most recognizable, sound from the New York accent is the â€Å"aw† sound, such as in â€Å"cawfee†, â€Å"tawk†, or â€Å"sawce† (coffee, talk, sauce). New Yorkers tend to broaden the vowel â€Å"a†, for example, saying â€Å"awe-ful† instead of â€Å"awful†. One may also hear (or not hear) a dropped â€Å"H† in New York speech, for example, â€Å"uge† instead of â€Å"huge† and â€Å"uman† instead of â€Å"human†. The New York accent sometimes features â€Å"TH† pronounced as if it were a singular â€Å"T† or a â€Å"D†, wherein a word such as â€Å"pathmark† becomes â€Å"pat-mark†, or â€Å"dese† and â€Å"dose† for â€Å"these† and â€Å"those†. The only immigrant language that had the â€Å"th† sound in it was Greek, meaning all the other travelers to the New World had a hard time pronouncing the sound. Another interesting aspect of the accent is the fact that New York vowels can change from one sound to another during pronunciation. These changing vowels are called diphthongs. This is believed to be part of the Irish influence on the accent, as the Irish frequently switch the diphthong â€Å"OI† with â€Å"ER† or â€Å"IR†. Two of the most popular and recognizable examples are when the word â€Å"oil† sounds like â€Å"earl† and â€Å"toilet† sounds like â€Å"terlet†, although this practice has shown a sharp decline over the generations. Another characteristic of European influence on the New York accent is the word â€Å"youse†. It is very ra re to hear this outside of New York, and it is thought to be Italian influenced because there is a plural â€Å"you† in the Italian language but there is not in English. The New York accent also receives some influence from the Yiddish (Jewish) language, introducing the intrusive â€Å"G†. There is no soft â€Å"G† in Yiddish like there is in English, so the â€Å"ing† sound becomes â€Å"ink† (Tannen, 1981). For example, â€Å"seeing† is pronounced â€Å"seeink†, and â€Å"doing† is pronounced â€Å"doink†. Yiddish syntax is also different than in English, so it’s possible to hear phrases (in the New York accent) like â€Å"a genius, he isn’t.† New York City is a melting pot of different cultures, immigrating from all over the world over the years. The origins of the New York City accent are diverse, and the source of many features is probably not recoverable. William Labov has pointed out that many features were originally found in southern England as mentioned above. He also claims that the vocalization and subsequent loss of â€Å"r† was copied from the prestigious London pronunciation, and so it started among the upper classes in New York and later spread to other socioeconomic classes. So it has been reasonably concluded that the New York Accent originated in and was â€Å"brought† here from London, in the simplest terms of explanation. In the 1800’s, all major cities on the Eastern seaboard began to copy the British pronunciation; saying â€Å"caah† instead of â€Å"car† and not pronouncing that final â€Å"r† as a consonant. New York did not imitate London directly. There wer e quite a few changes in the vowels so that the New York City accent and dialect began to branch off in its own direction, while still drawing major influence from the London pattern of â€Å"r-less† speech. The East Coast is referred to as the â€Å"r-less corridor† by linguists, and other coastal cities have accents with features in common with New York, like Boston and Charleston, S.C. Those cities were settled around the same time, and the speakers came from a certain place, South London, using a specific sounding type of British English. It can’t quite be determined when the other prominent features melded into the accent we know today. After the British, the next generation of European immigrants to New York City (Irish, Germans, Jews, Eastern Europeans, Russians, and Italians) contributed their own respective features. The New York accent is less a result of which particular city or borough the speaker is from, than which country that one’s forebea rs are from. It has been a common misconception (even by New Yorkers) that accent was related to borough; that there was a Queen’s accent, or a Brooklyn accent, or a Manhattan accent. This is not really the case, as it would be whatever the lineage or ethnicity of the speaker was, like an Italian-New York accent, or Spanish-New York accent. The variations of the New York City accent are a result of layering ethnic speech with the influence from waves of immigration. Over time, the collective influences combined to give New York City (and surrounding areas) a distinct and recognizable accent. Sociolinguistic research, which is ongoing, suggests some differentiation between the accents of these groups may exist. There have been differences found in the rate and degree of speech of Italian-New Yorkers versus Jewish-New Yorkers (Mammen, 1936). The features of the New York accent from Irish origin are the most stigmatized, evidence being that those features have declined over the years. William Labov has argued that these differences are relatively minor. All European American groups share relevant and similar accent features of some kind. Many people who represent as Italian-American speak â€Å"New Yorkese†, Labov says, no matter where they live. Labov gave this example: â€Å"In Philadelphia, an r-pronouncing city, there’s a certain amount of r-lessness among Italian-Americans.† (Virginia, 2010) There are neighborhoods throughout the city that are predominantly a specific ethnic group, but they are not limited to any one borough so the accent cannot be classified that way. As can be taken from earlier in this essay, some of the other variations of the New York accent are Irish, Yiddish, even Russian and Arabic. So essentially, the New York accent is a product of evolution, ethnic roots, and immigration. Over the many years, there have been a myriad of varying responses to the New York accent. These reactions have been personal for New Yorkers, or even present in society via the portrayal of the accent in media (movies, television, etc.). In a study done on language and social strata, Labov wrote The term linguistic self-hatred is not too extreme to apply.† People from New York and New Jersey described their own speech as â€Å"distorted,† â€Å"sloppy† and â€Å"horrible.† (Virginia, 2010) Some New Yorkers even go so far as to take classes to lose or â€Å"unlearn† their accents. Labov also found (in separate interviews) that only one third of New Yorkers liked their accent and most were under the impression that the other Americans dislike the accent in general (Tierney, 1995). Many professional-class New Yorkers from high socioeconomic backgrounds often make a concentrated effort to speak with less conspicuous accents for this reason and in order to be taken seriously; in particular, many use rhotic pronunciations instead of the characteristic New York non-rhotic pronunciations, while maintaining some of the less stigmatized features of the accent. However, the common association of the New York accent with the working and middle class has also, since the latter half of the 20th century, warranted many upper class New Yorkers to refrain from speaking with a New York accent. Because of the accent’s humbler origins, generations of parents hoping their children would grow up to be doctors or lawyers and get out of â€Å"the neighborhood†, encouraged their children to leave it behind, deeming is lower class, ethnic, or crude. The New York accent has also often been associated with negative stereotypes, such as mobster, gangsters, criminals, and thugs. Portrayal of the accent in kind of a negative light (such as in television shows and movies) has made New Yorkers self-aware of their accents and not in a good way. T he accent was even somewhat unpopular in Colonial times. People did not want to sound like New Yorkers, so the accent didn’t spread like others did but remained nearly exclusive to New York City, and parts of New Jersey and Long Island. But there are two sides to this coin, as some New Yorkers wear and project their accents with pride, pride that comes with being from New York City. And there is hope for media, maybe instead of erasing longstanding regional and social distinctions, television will help preserve them (Virginia, 2010). Outside, the accent used to be stigmatized, but inside of New York City, its a positive thing. Being from New York matters, and people need to convey that message, and one way for them to convey that is through language (Bortolot, 2011). Up until 1945, it was considered distinguished to drop the â€Å"r†. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, on his radio addresses: â€Å"We have nothing to fe-ah but fe-ah istelf.† After World War II however, Americans stopped considering British English to be quite so prestigious. But the classic New York City accent is fading away. It has been mocked and stereotyped to the point that it has fallen out of favor in the majority. Contrary to the popular impression that accents are disappearing, sociolinguists say regional accents are remaining quite distinct even as they change. Renà ©e Blake (a socio-cultural linguistics professor at NYU, specializing in New York City English) says that â€Å"while the New York accent will never die, the meaning of the accent continues to evolve as the city does.† Accent is an aspect of evolution (Quinlan, 2013). In conclusion, where did the famous and recognizable New York City accent come from? Well, in essence it came from the people. From the native New Yorkers who chose to sound different. But it is not a difficult stretch to find out that the accent originated in London. Since the British colonized America, I’m sure it could be argued that all of the native accents in America were originally were derived from British. But many of the characteristic sounds present in the New York accent can be traced back to their British counterparts with ease. However, as it turns out, there is more than one aspect of what makes up the New York City accent. The other main piece of the puzzle is ethnic roots or lineage. There are different varieties of the New York City accent that are based on ethnicity, due to the city’s long standing reputation as the gateway to America, a true melting pot of people and cultures. There are Italian-New Yorkers, Spanish-New Yorkers, and Yiddish-New Yorker s that all have a unique sound all their own. That was just to name a few, but the list of different types of accents in New York City could go on for a significant time. Or maybe it couldn’t, because there are a growing number of New Yorkers that have developed distaste for the way that they sound and wish to change their accents. While some New Yorkers have no problem with their accent or wield it proudly, a majority of them are looking down upon it so it has begun to fade out. But the accent will never die out and no matter how many habits New Yorkers consciously unlearn, they will still unconsciously say some things differently from the rest of the country (Tierney, 1995). Many New Yorkers are proud of their unique sound; it continues to be spoken widely in the city today, even without strong class distinctions. The accent has many curious phonological features which stand out when compared to other accents. These features show how the accent has evolved into a unique typ e of speech which reflects the New York speakers and their citys history. New Yorkers with different backgrounds have continuously and will continue to shape their accents according to their needs; this process of change will never stop as long as the accent continues to be used. Conversely, it remains to be seen whether the negative attitudes of those from other parts of the United States towards New York City speech will change in the future, and whether New Yorkers will continue to cherish the traditional, unique features of their accent. It is a strong symbol to and of New York City. And while some look down on the accent, there are just as many who see their speech and accent as an integral part of the city’s identity. Thus, although New York City speech has a rather bad reputation within the America, it is still valued and cherished by its speakers. Perhaps it is precisely this infamy that has partly caused the accent to be widely used and preserved among New Yorkers. I t’s also a New York state of mind; they rebel, consciously or unconsciously, against the beliefs of the majority. Regardless, the accent is permanently ingrained in and connected to the thriving metropolis and will continue to grow and change as New York City does itself. References: Quinlan, Heather. (Writer/Director). (2013). If These Knishes Could Talk: The Story of the New York Accent [Documentary]. USA: Canvas Kid Production Company. Tannen, D. (1981). New York Jewish Conversational Style. International Journal Of The Sociology Of Language, 1981(30), 133-149. Virginia,H. (2010). Points of Entry Speech Therapy. New York Times Magazine, 20. Mammen, E. W., Sonkin, R. (1936). A STUDY OF ITALIAN ACCENT. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 22(1), 1. You talkin to me?. (1995). Discover, 16(9), 27. Skinner, D. (2007). QUEENS ENGLISH. Weekly Standard, 12(33), 4. Bortolot, L. (2011, August 12). You Tawkin to New Yawk?. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved March 26, 2014, from http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424053111903918104576502373235185388?KEYWORDS=renee+blakemg=reno64-wsjurl=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111903918104576502373235185388.html?KEYWORDS=renee+blake Tierney, J. (1995, January 22). THE BIG CITY; Can We Talk?. The New York Times Archives. Retrieved March 26, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/22/magazine/the-big-city-can-we-talk.html Roberts, S. (2010, November 19). Unlearning to Tawk Like a New Yorker. The New York Times. Retrieved March 26, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/21/nyregion/21accent.html?pagewanted=all Green, R. (2012). English with an accent: language, ideology and discrimination in the United States (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Ida B. Wells Essay -- essays research papers

Ida B. Wells Ida B. Wells (1862-1931) was a newspaper editor and journalist who went on to lead the American anti-lynching crusade. Working closely with both African-American community leaders and American suffragists, Wells worked to raise gender issues within the "Race Question" and race issues within the "Woman Question." Wells was born the daughter of slaves in Holly Springs, Mississippi, on July 16, 1862. During Reconstruction, she was educated at a Missouri Freedman's School, Rust University, and began teaching school at the age of fourteen. In 1884, she moved to Memphis, Tennessee, where she continued to teach while attending Fisk University during summer sessions. In Tennessee, especially, she was appalled at the poor treatment she and other African-Americans received. After she was forcibly removed from her seat for refusing to move to a "colored car" on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad, the Tennessee Supreme Court rejected her suit against the railroad fo r violating her civil rights in 1877. This event and the legal struggle that followed it, however, encouraged Wells to continue to oppose racial injustice toward African-Americans. She took up journalism in addition to school teaching, and in 1891, after she had written several newspaper articles critical of the educational opportunities afforded African-American students, her teaching contract was not renewed. Effectively barred from teaching, she invested her savings in a part-inte...

Oliver Twist :: essays research papers

Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens is one of the most widely recognized and beloved stories of all time. The popularity of the novel and its author has made the book a frequent subject of literary criticism. Although the work has received mainly praise, some critics attack the novel. Since its publication, Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist has evolved from being criticized as a social commentary and a work of art, to a literary and artistic composition. Charles Dickens was born Charles John Huffam Dickens on February 7, 1812 in Portsmouth, England. Spending most of his childhood in London and Kent, Charles led a privileged life until 1824. It was then, while Charles was twelve years old, that his father, mother, and siblings were sent to debtor's prison. Although Dickens escaped the same fate as his family, he was forced to support himself by working in a shoe-polish factory. The horrific conditions in the factory haunted Dickens for the rest of his life. Dickens’s childhood experiences with the English legal system and in the factories made him a life-long champion of the poor. His novels are filled with downtrodden figures such as abused, impoverished orphans. He had a profound sympathy for childhood suffering and a strong desire for social reform that touches his work at almost every level. These themes heavily influence Oliver Twist (Charles Dickens). Dickens left the factory, educated himself, and in 1827 took a job as a legal clerk. After learning shorthand, he began working as a reporter in the courts and Parliament. The great detail and precise description that characterize Dickens' style in his novels are accredited to his experience as a reporter. After finding success as a reporter, Dickens focused on writing novels. He wrote a best-selling collection of humorous stories called The Pickwick Papers about orphans. With his second novel, Oliver Twist, Dickens retained some of the humor and the title character of an orphan, but he wrote a book with a more complex plot and a grittier look at the horrors of London. Dickens list of literary accomplishments continues with Nicholas Nickleby (1839), Master Humphrey's Clock (including Old Curiosity Shop and Barnaby Rudge 1840-1841), A Christmas Carol (1843), The Cricket on the Hearth (1845), Dombey and Son (1848), David Copperfield (1850), Bleak House (1853), Hard Times for These Times (1854), Little Dorrit (1857), A Tale of Two Cities (1859), Great Expectations (1861), Our Mutual Friend (1865), and The Mystery of Edwin Drood (unfinished 1870) (Dickens iv).

The Sonnet Genre Combining with Figurative Language Essay -- Sonnets L

The Sonnet Genre Combining with Figurative Language Compare how the conventions of the sonnet genre combine with figurative language to create meaning in at least two texts. Originating in Italy, the sonnet was established by Petrarch in the 14th century as a major form of love poetry, and came to be adopted in England in the 16th century (Oxford Literary terms). Overtime there have been different types of sonnets written, for example the Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet, the English (Shakespearean) sonnet and the Spenserian sonnet. Each of these sonnets have there own conventions and use different types of poetic language to help create meaning for the reader. For the purpose of this essay we will look at how the conventions of sonnets combine specifically with figurative language to create meaning. We will begin by looking briefly at the three types of sonnet conventions before moving on to look at William Shakespeare’s ‘Sonnet 18’ and ‘Sonnet 73’ to show how meaning is created through the combination of conventions and figurative language. As earlier mentioned, there are different types of sonnet, the major types being Italian, Shakespearean and Spenserian, each having their own sonnet form. All forms generally have some common features, such as comprising of fourteen lines and being written in iambic pentameter. The Italian sonnet has an eight-line octave, which usually raises an issue/argument followed by a six-line sestet where the issue/argument is resolved. The octave has a rhyme scheme of ABBAABBA, and the sestet can have either two or three rhyming sounds arranged in a variety of ways, for example CDCDCD, CDDCDC, CDECDE thus making the sestet very flexible. The Shakespearean sonnet comprises of... ...ar conventions but developed its argument much like the Italian sonnet. This shows how the English form and Italian argument structure compliment each other. The conventions of both these sonnets did create meaning but this was further enhanced with the use of figurative language. In ‘sonnet 73’ the metaphors were used to show the speaker growing old and then extended throughout the sonnet, which helped to emphasize the sonnets central meaning. Whereas in ‘Sonnet 18’ personification was used to create an image in the readers head of an amazingly beautiful woman who is incomparable to even the nicest season, summer. I conclude that on there own both conventions and figurative language create meaning but when combined the meaning is enhanced. This is due to figurative language being able to create images for the reader and add mood and tension to a sonnet.

Dance Philosophy Essay

Dance is the reason I exist and as cheesy as it sounds its true. In 1982 my father met my mother at a dance club. He said after watching her dancing with her friends he had to talk to her. Dance has the power to cross boundaries and touch one’s soul. As a form dance can be anything. Rain falling into a pound, an individual tying their shoe, a swan boureeing across a stage or man rolling across a stage can all be dance. Dance is a series of movements stitched together with an intent and frame. Weather the intent is to express emotion, showcase technique, or make a statement it is all dance. I started dancing in high school after a teacher of mine recommended I take a class. My first real dance class was ballet. It was a foreign language to me. At first it was a string of movements empty in meaning and emotion. I just danced through the motions until one day my teacher told us that we needed to bring the movement to life. I did not understand this concept at first, how could movement come to life? It wasn’t until I began taking a modern class that I understood this concept. I could use movement to express my own thoughts, fears, joys, and questions. When I try and analyze what dances means to me, ultimately, I see it as a multifaceted entity. Dance is part of my identity and without it I believe I would struggle with understanding who I am. First and foremost dance for me has always been a form of therapy. Growing up I hated conflict and as a result internalized my issues. Through dance I was able to find a reliable outlet to release my frustrations, fears, and inhibitions, which allowed me to explore my personal struggles through movement. Secondly I believe that movement has the power to transcend boundaries and make statements that are often hard to say. Movement is an outlet to foster awareness, dialogue, change and growth while bridging the gap between artistic expression and community dialogue.

Education Timeline

History of American Education Timeline Antiria Jenkins HIS324: History of American Education Instructor: Timothy Kilgore November 12, 2012 http://prezi. com/vcesi_y4xome/history-of-american-education-timeline/ Education in the United States has faced great changes toward development in the past hundreds of years. At the beginning, during the Colonial Era, the principles of education were mainly based on those already used by European nations at the time.However, the country began to adopt its own approaches toward teachings given different social, political and religious practices (Rippa 9). 1635The first Latin Grammar School (Boston Latin School): Founded on April 23, 1635, in Boston, Massachusetts, it is known as the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States. The Latin grammar curriculum was designed for boys 8 to 15, based on European Schools in a Puritan area. Schools were to prepare boys for college and the service of God.Protestantism believed that edu cation was needed so that individuals could interpret the bible. 1751American Academy founded by Ben Franklin: The demand of skilled workers in the middle of the eighteenth century led Benjamin Franklin to start a new kind of secondary school, thus, the American Academy was established in Philadelphia. American high schools eventually replaced Latin grammar schools. Curriculum was geared to prepare students for employment. Academies eventually replaced the Latin Grammar Schools and some admitted Women. 783Introduction of Noah Webster’s Speller: Noah Webster published the A grammatical Institute of the English language, also known as, â€Å"the blue-back speller. † This was the most widely circulated of the early American textbooks and like Webster’s American Dictionary it strived to establish a national identity as well as the United States’ linguistic and cultural independence of England. As the first popular American textbook, the introduction of Noah W ebster’s speller stands as a significant event in the history of American education. 817(April 15, 1817) Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons: The Connecticut Asylum at Hartford for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons opens. It is the first permanent school for the deaf in the U. S. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc are the school's co-founders. In 1864, Thomas Gallaudet's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, helps to start Gallaudet University, the first college specifically for deaf students. 824First State-Supported School Established: Originally named the Boston English Classical School and established in 1821, the school was renamed the English High School in 1824 and also, during that year, became the first-state supported common school. The adoption of the English High as a state-supported common school is a significant event in the history of American education as it was, essentially, the first public school. 1855Abolitio n of Segregation of Schools in Massachusetts: Following the case of Roberts v.Boston, the state of Massachusetts abolished segregation in their schools. The victory would be the first in a long battle lasting nearly an entire century. This was the first law to oppose segregated schools in the United States and is, therefore, a significant event in the history of American education. 1856The First Kindergarten: In the United States Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1856. Her German-language kindergarten impressed Elizabeth Peabody, who opened the first American English-language kindergarten in Boston in 1860.The kindergarten was much more influential in the United States and in the northern part of Europe which encouraged the National Education Association to begin a kindergarten department in 1874, and later, teachers founded the International Kindergarten Union in 1892. 1896The Laboratory School of the University of Chicago (First Progressi ve Laboratory):John Dewey, the father of the progressive education, established the first laboratory school for testing the progressive educational method. This would lead to a popular trend in education adopted by schools during the first half of the twentieth century.Progressive education emphasizes cultivation of problem solving and critical thinking skills through hands-on learning activities. 1905 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: Founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1905 and chartered in 1906 by an act of Congress, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching is an independent policy and research center. The Foundation encouraged the adoption of a standard system for equating â€Å"seat time† (the amount of time spent in a class) to high school credits which is still in use today. This system is known as the â€Å"Carnegie Unit. 1939 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (first called the Wechsler- Bellevue Intelligence Scale): This scale was dev eloped by David Wechsler and is intended to measure human intelligence reflected in both verbal and performance abilities. It introduces the concept of the â€Å"deviation IQ,† which calculates IQ scores based on how far subjects' scores differ (or deviate) from the average (mean) score of others who are the same age, rather than calculating them with the ratio (MA/CA multiplied by 100) system. Wechsler intelligence tests, particularly the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, are still widely used in U.S. schools to help identify students needing special education. 1944 The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill of Rights): Bill signed into law on June 22, 1944 by President Franklin Roosevelt during World War II. The GI Bill affords military veterans government funding to pursue or continue educational goals following their service. The GI Bill not only compensates veterans for their service, but has also been responsible for the growth of American colleges and u niversities. 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: On May 17, 1954, The U. S. Supreme court ruled in Brown v.Board of Education that separate schools did not provide equal education to students and therefore banned the segregation of schools nationwide with a ruling of (9–0) decision stated that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal and declared unconstitutional. 1958 Defense Education Act of 1958: The Defense Education Act of 1958 was signed into law on September 2, 1958 by the United States government during the cold war in reaction to the successful launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik. The Soviets’ scientific success motivated the U. S. government to fund the U.S. Office of Education’s establishment of scientifically and mathematically centered curriculum. The act contained ten titles designed to improve the nation's schools. 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed on July 2, 1964 by President Lyndon B. Joh nson banned discrimination in all federally funded programs and outlawed major forms of discrimination against racial, ethnic, national and religious minorities, and women. This law helped to further the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education as many schools had continued segregation.The Civil Rights Act of 1964 financially, â€Å"cut-off,† institutions, such as public schools, which promoted discrimination of any and all types and gave leverage to the movement. 1965 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was passed on April 9, 1965 s a part of the â€Å"War on Poverty. † It emphasizes equal access to education and establishes high standards and accountability as well as provides federal funds to help low-income students, which results in the initiation of educational programs such as Title I and bilingual education. 965 The Higher Education Act: The Higher Education Act was signed on November 8, 1965 to stre ngthen the educational resources of colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education. It increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. 1965 Project Head Start: The Head Start program started in the summer of 1965 as an eight week summer program for children from low-income communities going into public school in the fall (Styfco and Zigler, 2003).The program provided preschool classes, medical care, dental care, and mental health services (Kagan, 2002). 1975Education for All Handicapped Children Act now known as The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): requires public schools to make available to all eligible children with disabilities a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their individual needs and requires public school systems to develop appropriate I ndividualized Education Programs (IEP's) for each child which will reflect the individualized needs of each student. 002 The No Child Left Behind Act: On January 8, 2002, NCLB was signed into law. NCLB supports standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals can improve individual outcomes in education. The Act requires states to develop assessments in basic skills. States must give these assessments to all students at select grade levels in order to receive federal school funding. All students are required to meet the standards establish by NCLB at the accountability of educators. 2004 H. R. 350, The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEA 2004): reauthorizes and modifies IDEA. Changes, which take effect on July 1, 2005, include modifications in the IEP process and procedural safeguards, increased authority for school personnel in special education placement decisions, and alignment of IDEA with the No Child Left Behind Act. The 2004 reauthorization also requires school districts to use the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach as a means for the early identification of students at risk for specific learning disabilities.RTI provides a three-tiered model for screening, monitoring, and providing increasing degrees of intervention using â€Å"research-based instruction† with the overall goal of reducing the need for special education services (Re-authorization, 2004). The history of education has been influenced multiple times over the past years. In some shape, form, or fashion, the many changes have affected many lives, especially those with disabilities.Going from segregation to desegregation, women involvement in education and fighting for equal education of those individuals with disabilities has not only marked historical events but has brought togetherness among all races and genders. Without these historical events in shaping education, the world would be at a stand still. References Dewey, John. 1938 (1963). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books Kagan, J. (2002). Empowerment and education: Civil rights, expert-advocates, and parent politics in Head Start, 1964-1980.Teachers College Record, 104(3), 516-562. Re-authorization of the IDEA 2004. Retrieved November 5, 2012 from http://www. nj. gov/education/specialed/idea/reauth/ Rippa, Alexander. Education in a Free Society. Eighth Edition. New York: Longman, 1997. 3-107. Print. Styfco, S. , & Zigler, E. (2003). Early Childhood Programs for a New Century. Reynolds, A. , & Wang, M. (Eds. ) The federal commitment to preschool education: Lessons from and for Head Start (pp. 3-33). Washington, D. C. : Child Welfare League of America, Inc.